PERS March 2015 Members - page 190

190 March 2015 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING
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Buddhism, which became for a time the dominant religion of
Bhutan. Guru Rimpoche plays a great historical and religious
role as the national patron saint who revealed the tantras--
manuals describing forms of devotion to natural energy--to
Bhutan. Following the guru’s sojourn, Indian influence played
a temporary role until increasing Tibetan migrations brought
new cultural and religious contributions.
“There was no central government during this period.
Instead, small independent monarchies began to develop by the
early ninth century. Each was ruled by a deb (king), some of
whom claimed divine origins. The kingdom of Bumthang was
the most prominent among these small entities. At the same
time, Tibetan Buddhist monks (lam in Dzongkha, Bhutan’s
official national language) had firmly rooted their religion
and culture in Bhutan, and members of joint Tibetan-Mongol
military expeditions settled in fertile valleys. By the eleventh
century, all of Bhutan was occupied by Tibetan-Mongol military
forces” (Andrea Matles Savada, ed. Bhutan: A Country Study.
Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991).
“In 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,
under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in
exchange for ceding some border land to British India. Under
British influence, a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years
later, a treaty was signed whereby the British agreed not to
interfere in Bhutanese internal affairs, and Bhutan allowed
Britain to direct its foreign affairs. This role was assumed
by independent India after 1947. Two years later, a formal
Indo-Bhutanese accord returned to Bhutan the areas annexed
by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the country
received, and defined India’s responsibilities in defense
and foreign relations. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye
WANGCHUCK unveiled the government’s draft constitution
- which introduced major democratic reforms - and pledged to
hold a national referendum for its approval. In December 2006,
the King abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Jigme Khesar
Namgyel WANGCHUCK, in order to give him experience as
head of state before the democratic transition. In early 2007,
India and Bhutan renegotiated their treaty, eliminating the
clause that stated that Bhutan would be “guided by” India in
conducting its foreign policy, although Thimphu continues to
coordinate closely with New Delhi. Elections for seating the
country’s first parliament were completed in March 2008;
the king ratified the country’s first constitution in July 2008.
Bhutan experienced a peaceful turnover of power following
parliamentary elections in 2013, which routed the incumbent
party” (World Factbook, 2015).
Bordered by China (477 km) (PE&RS, May 2000), and India
(659 km) (PE&RS, March 2014), the Kingdom is mountainous
with some fertile valleys and savanna. The lowest point is
Drangeme Chhu (97 m), and the highest point is Gangkar
Puensum (7,570 m).
“The oldest recorded history suggesting any formof organized
land tenure system goes back to the early 17th century when
Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel instituted the Marthram Chem
– a central register of cultivated land, created practically for
taxing purposes. Since then subsequent monarchs gradually
re-defined the relationship between man and land, and land
tenure evolved to become what it is today – a form of freehold
land tenure adapted to the socio-economic environment of the
country. The Bhutanese landowner enjoys a very high degree
of security of land title and can exercise full rights of alienation
barring a few restrictions that are aimed at maintaining an
equitable distribution of land. The Bhutanese Land Act of
1979 provides the legal framework” (An Insight into Surveying,
Mapping, and Land Administration, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Trashichhodzong, Thimhu, Bhutan, 2nd Edition, 2001). A
systematic cadastral survey was started in 1980 using plane
tables and alidades and countrywide coverage was achieved
in 1997 in which each parcel is located on a national geodetic
frame.
There appears to be six GNSS continuously operating
reference stations that provide reference to an International
Terrestrial Reference Frame epoch. Located in Phuntsholing,
Gelephu, Deothang, Kanglung, Burnthang, and Thimphu, the
sites are intended to be used for post processing of data.
The contents of this column reflect the views of the author, who is
responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein. The
contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and/or the
Louisiana State University Center for GeoInformatics (C4G).